Convicts

See also my talk handout about 'Tracing convicts'.

Convicts

About 152,000 convicts were sent to eastern colonies of Australia 1788-1853 (mostly to NSW or Tasmania / Van Diemen's Land) plus 9,700 convicts were sent to Western Australia 1850-1868

UK & Ireland (trial & voyage) | New South Wales | Norfolk Island | Queensland | South Australia |Tasmania | Victoria | Western Australia | General

UK & Ireland (Trial & voyage)

• Archives Hub – https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/discoveringarchivesonline/    (Search across archives held in UK)
• Archives Wales – https://archives.wales    (See 'Find your Archive': archives repositories, including county record offices, holding Quarter Sessions records - other than Monmouthshire)
• Assize Court Records – https://familysearch.org/wiki/en/Assize_Court_Records    (on FamilySearch Wiki, a description of these court records, their history and where they are now located)
• Australian Joint Copying Project (AJCP) – https://www.nla.gov.au/using-library/research-tools-and-resources/australian-joint-copying-project    (microfilm of UK records likely to be of interest in Australia, NZ and Pacific)
      AJCP handbook – https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-396880406/view?partId=nla.obj-396998862#page/n0/mode/1up    (handbook of material copied)
• Bedfordshire Gaol Register – http://apps.bedford.gov.uk/grd/    (gaol registers 1801 to 1879, contains personal descriptions)
• Before Transportation – https://libraries.tas.gov.au/family-history/convicts-in-van-diemens-land-now-tasmania/before-transportation/    (Libraries Tasmania)
• Britain sent Thousands of its Convicts to America, Not Just Australia – http://paleofuture.gizmodo.com/britain-sent-thousands-of-its-convicts-to-america-not-1707458418    (article, with references)
• British convicts shipped to American colonies – https://www.jstor.org/stable/1833611?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents    (article, with references)
• British Library
      Juvenile crime in the 19th century – https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/juvenile-crime-in-the-19th-century    (article by Liza Picard)
      Victorian prisons and punishments – https://www.bl.uk/victorian-britain/articles/victorian-prisons-and-punishments    (article by Matthew White)
• Capital Punishment U.K. – http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org    (History of death penalty in Britain)
      History of Newgate prison – http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/newgate.html
• Conditions in Britain & Ireland – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZS6mFMuny4    (YouTube video by A/P Hamish Maxwell-Stewart)
• Chartist Ancestors – https://www.chartistancestors.co.uk    (chartists wanted democratic reforms & some protesters were transported as convicts)
• Convict love tokens – http://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/exhibition/objectsthroughtime/convict-love-tokens/    (tokens made by convicts to leave behind with loved ones)
• Convict prison hulks – https://mhnsw.au/stories/general/convict-hulks/    (Sydney's Hyde Park Barracks exhibition)
      British prison hulks – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_British_prison_hulks    (includes ships' names & years in service)
      Prison Hulk Registers & Letter Books – http://search.ancestry.com.au/search/db.aspx?dbid=1989   (Ancestry.com, 1802-1840, costs)
      Prison Ship (Hulk) Registers – http://search.findmypast.co.uk/search-world-records/prison-ship-hulk-registers    (findmypast.com, 1811-1843, images cost)
      Prison hulks on the River Thames – https://exploring-london.com/2021/10/29/lost-london-prison-hulks-on-the-thames/    (article)
• Devon convicts transported to Australia 1782-1821 – https://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/DEV/Emigration/LastFarewell    ('The Last Farewell')
• digital panopticon – https://www.digitalpanopticon.org    ('Tracing London Convicts in Britain & Australia, 1780-1925')
      Convict hulks – https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/Convict_Hulks#:~:text=In%20August%201776%2C%20the%20Justicia,the%20Thames%20held%20510%20prisoners.
      Convict Records – https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/Records    (information articles and sources)
      Criminal Justice, 1780-1925 – https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/Criminal_Justice,_1780-1925
      Petitions for Pardon, 1797-1858 – https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/Petitions_for_Pardon_1797-1858
      Transportation Under the Macroscope – https://blog.digitalpanopticon.org/transportation-under-the-macroscope/
• Down County Museum convict transportation – https://www.visitmournemountains.co.uk/museums/down-county-museum/history/gaol-convicts-database    (convicts sent from County Down to NSW)
• Dumfries Jail Books – https://info.dumgal.gov.uk/HistoricalIndexes/Home/IndexDescription/5    (gaol registers 1714-1810)
• England & Wales, Crime, Prisons & Punishment, 1770-1935 – http://search.findmypast.co.uk/search-world-records/england-and-wales-crime-prisons-and-punishment-1770-1935    (findmypast, assorted crime records, costs)
• English and American attitudes towards Convict Transportation 1718-1775 – https://www.jstor.org/stable/24415748?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents    (article)
• FamilySearch Wiki
      Assize Records – https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/Assize_Court_Records    (Assizes tried cases that could result in capital punishment)
      Ireland Prison Registers, 1790 to 1924 – https://familysearch.org/wiki/en/Ireland_Prison_Registers_(FamilySearch_Historical_Records)    (describes records held by National Archives of Ireland)
      Kent Quarter Sessions Index – https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/England,_Kent,_Quarter_Sessions_and_Court_Files_(FamilySearch_Historical_Records)   (1558-1899)
      London Crime and Punishment – https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/London_Crime_and_Punishment
      (England) Quarter Session Records – https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/England_Quarter_Session_Records    (lesser crimes were tried in Quarter Sessions courts)
      Shropshire Court Records – https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/England_Quarter_Session_Records
      Warwickshire Court Records – https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/Warwickshire_Court_Records
• From Across the Seas: The Diverse Origins of Australia's Convicts – https://adb.anu.edu.au/essay/23    (Australian Dictionary of Biography essay)
• From Convicts to Colonists: the Health of Prisoners and the Voyage to Australia, 1823-1853 – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3407954/    (National Library of Medicine article)
• Inveraray Jail (Argyll, Scotland) prisoner records – http://www.inverarayjail.co.uk/our-history/    (see 'Prisoner Records', Gaol registers 1820 to 1889, contains personal descriptions)
• Ireland-Australia transportation database – https://www.nationalarchives.ie/article/penal-transportation-records-ireland-australia-1788-1868-2/    (convicts transported from Ireland to Australia, incomplete for transportations prior to 1836)
• Irish Chief Secretary's Correspondence – https://csorp.nationalarchives.ie    (ongoing project digitising documents 1818-52)
• Irish convict transportation to Australia – https://independentaustralia.net/australia/australia-display/irish-convict-transportation-to-australia,3101    (article by Brad Webb)
• Irish Convicts to NSW 1788-1849 – http://members.pcug.org.au/~ppmay/convicts.htm    (Peter Mayberry)
• Irish Rebellions of the 1800s – https://www.thoughtco.com/irish-rebellions-of-the-1800s-1774018    (Robert McNamara)
• Kent Quarter Sessions Index – http://freepages.rootsweb.com/~mrawson/genealogy/sessions.html   (1657-1804)
• Lancaster Castle – https://www.lancastercastle.com/history-heritage/a-dark-history/
• National Library of Wales – https://www.library.wales
      Court of Great Sessions ('Crime and Punishment') database – https://crimeandpunishment.library.wales    (index to gaol records from Court of Great Sessions 1730-1830)
      Records of the Court of Great Sessions – https://www.library.wales/fileadmin/docs_gwefan/new_structure/catalogues/help_to_search/information_leaflets/dar_taf_Great_Sessions2_150330D.pdf
• Newgate Calendar – http://www.exclassics.com/newgate/ngintro.htm    (digitised book)
• Newspapers – eResources on your national, state / provincial library website   (trial reports in eg Times Digital Archive 1785 to 1985, 19th century British Library Newspapers, British Newspapers 1600-1900)
• Old Bailey Online – http://www.oldbaileyonline.org    (trial records from London's Central Criminal Court, 1674 to 1913)
     Tracing London Convicts in Britain & Australia 1780-1925 – https://www.digitalpanopticon.org    (Digital Panopticon)
• Prison History – https://www.prisonhistory.org    (prisons in British Isles)
      Why were Victorian Prisons so tough? – https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/victorian-prison/    (classroom resources)
• Scottish convicts    (National Records of Scotland)
      Crime & criminals – http://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/research/guides/crime-and-criminals   (research guide)
      High Court criminal trials – https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/research/research-guides/research-guides-a-z/high-court-criminal-trials    (research guide)
      Index of legal terms & offences – http://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/research/research-guides/research-guides-a-z/court-and-legal-records/index-of-legal-terms
• Scottish Prison Register Search – https://www.scottishindexes.com/learningprison.aspx
• The National Archives (UK, London) – http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk    (original trial, prison, hulk, transportation records & much more)
      Discovery catalogue search – http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk    (catalogue search, including some name searches)
      (lesser crimes tried at Quarter Sessions courts, held at English county record offices, find via ‘Find an archive’)
• The National Archives (UK) Podcasts – https://media.nationalarchives.gov.uk    (large files, audio lectures, some have transcripts)
     Catching Victorian and Edwardian criminals on paper
     Criminal ancestors: trial records at The National Archives
     From crime to punishment: criminal records of our ancestors from the 18th & 19th centuries
     Journeys of discovery: Surgeons at Sea
     Morbidity and mortality on convict voyages to 19th century Australia
     Prison hulks
     Prison: five hundred years behind bars
     Radicalism and unrest
     Reckless, rash and repentant: Convicts' petitions for mercy
     Transportation to Australia
• The National Archives (UK) Research guides – http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides-keywords/    ('C' for Crime and the law, courts, etc)
     Criminal transportation
     Prisoners & prison staff
     Surgeons at Sea    (includes links to journals of surgeons who served on convict & emigrant ships 1793 to 1880)
     Victorian children in trouble with the law    (educational resource)
• Warwickshire Calendar of Prisoners database – https://apps.warwickshire.gov.uk/prisonersdb/prisoners/indexes    (criminals & victims)
• Wives & Children of Irish Convicts 1825 to 1840 (Ancestry.com.au) – http://search.ancestry.com.au/search/db.aspx?dbid=2377    (costs)

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New South Wales

• Museums of History NSW – https://mhnsw.au    
      Convict records (& guides) – https://mhnsw.au/archive/subjects/convicts/    
      Colonial Secretary's Correspondence – https://mhnsw.au/archive/subjects/colonial-secretary/
      Courts (higher) – https://mhnsw.au/archive/subjects/criminal-courts/    
      Courts (lower) – https://mhnsw.au/archive/subjects/courts-lower/    
      Female Factory – https://mhnsw.au/archive/subjects/female-factory/
      Gaol inmates & prisoners – https://mhnsw.au/archive/subjects/gaol-inmates-and-prisoners/
• NSW Transcription agents     (obtain copies of records from State Archives Reading Room, for those unable to visit themselves)
      Marilyn Rowan – http://www.nswtranscriptions.com.au/
      Turtle Consolidated Services – http://home.iprimus.com.au/lturtle/


• Aboriginal Convicts: Race, Law & Transportation – http://eprints.utas.edu.au/7467/2/Kris_Harman_PhD_Thesis.pdf    (aboriginals tried & transported under colonial laws)
• Ancestry.com (Convict Collection) – http://search.ancestry.co.uk/search/group/AUConvicts    (indents, musters, pardons, Colonial Secretary's Correspondence & much more, costs)
• Claim a Convict – http://www.hawkesbury.net.au/claimaconvict/    (contact other researchers)
• Cockatoo Island Convicts – https://www.cockatooisland.gov.au/en/learn/island-history/convict-penal-establishment/
• Convict and emancipist teachers of NSW 1789-1830 – http://dehanz.net.au/entries/convict-emancipist-teachers/    (details of teachers and their crimes)
• Dictionary of Sydney (articles)
      Castle Hill Convict Rebellion 1804 – http://www.dictionaryofsydney.org/entry/castle_hill_convict_rebellion_1804
      Female Factory (second factory at Parramatta) – https://dictionaryofsydney.org/entry/parramatta_female_factory
      First Fleet – https://dictionaryofsydney.org/artefact/first_fleet
• Female Factory (Parramatta) – http://www.parragirls.org.au    (Factory = 'Manufactory' - place of work & prison, information about institution, prison, orphanage)
• Female Orphan School, Parramatta – https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/femaleorphanschool/home
• findmypast.com.au (costs)
     Convict Arrivals (indents) – https://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/new-south-wales-convict-arrivals
     Convict Conditional and Absolute Pardons 1791-1867 – https://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/australia-convict-conditional-and-absolute-pardons-1791-1867
     Convict Death Register 1828-1879 – https://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/new-south-wales-convict-death-register-1828-1879
     Convict Tickets of Leave 1824-1874 – https://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/australia-convict-tickets-of-leave-1824-1874
     Convicts' Certificates of Freedom 1827-1867 – https://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/new-south-wales-butts-of-convicts-certificates-of-freedom-1827-1867
     Registers of Convicts' Applications to Marry 1825-1851 – https://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/new-south-wales-registers-of-convicts-applications-to-marry-1825-1851
     Settlers and Convicts 1787-1859 – https://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/new-south-wales-and-tasmania-settlers-and-convicts-1787-1859
• First Fleet Online – http://firstfleet.uow.edu.au/index.html   (information & database)
• First Fleeters – http://www.fellowshipfirstfleeters.org.au   (Fellowship of First Fleeters)
• Free Settler or Felon? – http://www.jenwilletts.com    (Newcastle / Hunter Valley convicts, settlers, soldiers)
• 'From Terra Australis to Australia' – http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/stories/terra-australis-australia    (animations & histories, State Library of NSW)
• Great North Road – https://roads-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/about/environment/protecting-heritage/documents/self_guided_tours/the_convict_trail_the_great_north_road.pdf    (convict built)
• Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney – https://mhnsw.au/tags/convicts/   (convict barracks in Sydney)
• Irish convicts to NSW – http://members.pcug.org.au/~ppmay/   (Peter Mayberry)
• Newcastle Penal Settlement – https://downloads.newcastle.edu.au/library/cultural%20collections/pdf/1981-bramble-aborigines.pdf    (article on Aboriginal/ settler race relations)
• Parramatta's Old Government House – https://www.nationaltrust.org.au/places/old-government-house/

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Norfolk Island

• Australian History Research    (Cathy Dunn)
      Norfolk Island Deaths – http://www.australianhistoryresearch.info/category/resources/norfolk-island-deaths/    
      Norfolk Island Shipping – http://www.australianhistoryresearch.info/category/resources/shipping-records/    
• 'Mutiny on the Bounty': the genetic history of Norfolk Island reveals extreme gender-biased admixture – https://investigativegenetics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13323-015-0028-9     (Investigative Genetics, BioMed Central)
• Norfolk Island Guide – https://mhnsw.au/archive/subjects/norfolk-island/    (Museums of History NSW)
• Norfolk Island Penal Settlement – https://researchdata.edu.au/norfolk-island-penal-establishment/165732    (State Records Authority of NSW)
• Norfolk Island Settlement – https://firstfleetfellowship.org.au/convicts/norfolk-island-settlement/    (First Fleet Fellowship Victoria Inc)
• Norfolk Island, the website – https://www.pitcairners.org/settlements.html
• (The) Prosecution Project – https://dataverse.ada.edu.au/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.26193/RR82PE    (Australian Historical Criminal Justice Data Dataverse)

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Queensland (was NSW until 1859)

• Queensland State Archives
     Moreton Bay Convicts – https://www.qld.gov.au/recreation/arts/heritage/archives/collection/convicts


• findmypast.com.au    (images cost)
     Queensland Convict Register Index 1824-1839 – https://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/queensland-convict-register-index-1824-1839
     St Helena Convict Index 1863-1936 – https://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/queensland-st-helena-convict-index-1863-1936
• Moreton Bay Penal Settlement 1824 to 1842 – http://blogs.slq.qld.gov.au/jol/2014/06/12/moreton-bay-penal-settlement-1824-to-1842/    (blog article, John Oxley library)
• State Library of Queensland
     Convict Queenslanders – http://www.slq.qld.gov.au/resources/convict-queenslanders    (biographical information)
     Convict research guide – https://content.slq.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/State%20Library%20of%20Queensland%20research%20guide%20-%20Convict%20records%20getting%20started%20-%202023%2001_0.pdf
     Convict Transportation Database – https://convictrecords.com.au    (incomplete index of convicts transported to all colonies)
     Moreton Bay Penal Settlement 1824-1842 – https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/moreton-bay-penal-settlement-1824-1842

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South Australia (no convicts sent directly to South Australia, although emancipists settled there from elsewhere)

• Convicts transported from South Australia – http://www.jaunay.com/convicts.html   (those tried in SA courts, see also findmypast)
• findmypast.com.au (images cost)
     South Australia Convicts – http://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/south-australia-convicts    (South Australians sentenced to transportation + recaptured runaways)
     South Australian Ex-Convicts – http://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/south-australian-ex-convicts

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Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land till 1853, was NSW until 1825)

• Convict portal – https://libraries.tas.gov.au/family-history/convicts-in-van-diemens-land-now-tasmania/
• Tasmanian Names Index – https://talis.ent.sirsidynix.net.au/client/en_AU/names/   (includes index to convicts & convicts' permission to marry)


• Abbreviations and formats used in convict records – https://libraries.tas.gov.au/family-history/convict-abbreviations/conduct-records-con31-con40/
• Ancestry.com.au    (costs)
     Baptisms of Children of Convicted Women, 1833-1854 – http://search.ancestry.com.au/search/db.aspx?dbid=60750
     Despatches of the Governor's Office, 1823-1855 – http://search.ancestry.com.au/search/db.aspx?dbid=60751
• Coal Mines historic site – http://www.discovertasmania.com.au/attraction/coalmineshistoricsite
• Convict Department guide – https://stors.tas.gov.au/au-7-0038-00120_1    (detailed guide to records)
• Convicts and the Colonial Period – http://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/Images/Colonial%20period%202.htm   (many articles)
• Female Convicts Research Centre – http://www.femaleconvicts.org.au   (lists of female convicts, their children, and those who worked with them, also magistrates & convict ships)
• findmypast.com.au (images cost)
     Settlers and Convicts 1787-1859 – http://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/new-south-wales-and-tasmania-settlers-and-convicts-1787-1859
     Tasmanian Convict Records 1800-1893 – http://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/tasmania-convict-records-1800-1893
• Founders & Survivors - digitising Tasmania's past – https://foundersandsurvivors.com/   (see especially Projects & Visualisations)
• Maria Island: Darlington Probation Station – http://www.discovertasmania.com.au/about/world-heritage-areas/darlington-probation-station
• Orphan Schools & St John's Park Precinct – http://www.orphanschool.org.au   (information about Hobart institution & orphans)
• Port Arthur (Van Diemen's Land / Tasmania) – http://portarthur.org.au   (see under 'History', information about penal settlement)
• Sorell, William: An examination of his convict settlement and establishment of free settlement – http://eprints.utas.edu.au/11816/1/Sorell_Thesis.pdf    (thesis)
• Transportation, Penal Ideology & the experience of juvenile offenders in England & Australia in the early 19th century – https://journals.openedition.org/chs/416    (select 'English')

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Victoria (was NSW until 1851)

• Public Record Office Victoria
     Justice, crime and law – https://www.prov.vic.gov.au/explore-collection/explore-topic/justice-crime-and-law    (gateway page)
     Register of Convicts c1842 to 1854 – https://www.prov.vic.gov.au/explore-collection/explore-topic/register-convicts-1842-1854


• Victoria, Convict Register 1842-1854 – http://search.findmypast.com.au/search-world-Records/victoria-convict-register-1842-1854    (images cost)
• Victoria Government Gazette Online Archive 1836 to 1997 – http://gazette.slv.vic.gov.au    (includes 'NSW Government Gazette' 1836 to 1851)
• Victoria's early history, 1803-1851: convicts – http://guides.slv.vic.gov.au/Victoriasearlyhistory/convicts    (State Library of Victoria guide)
• Western Port settlement – http://ergo.slv.vic.gov.au/explore-history/colonial-melbourne/convicts/settlement-western-port    (now Corinella, Victoria - convicts, military & settlers)

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Western Australia (received convicts 1850 to 1868)

• Convict database – http://fremantleprison.com.au/history-heritage/history/convict-database/
• Convict records of Western Australia – http://www.friendsofbattyelibrary.org.au/convict-records-of-western-australia.html    (research guide published by Friends of Battye Library
• Western Australia Convict records, 1846-1930 – http://search.ancestry.com.au/search/db.aspx?dbid=60668    (on Ancestry.com.au, costs)


• Colonial Secretary's Office Records – https://www.wa.gov.au/organisation/state-records-office-of-western-australia/colonial-secretarys-office   (records at State Records Office of Western Australia)
• Convict Records – https://www.wa.gov.au/organisation/state-records-office-of-western-australia/convicts#:~:text=The%20State%20Records%20Office%20holds,Australia%20between%201850%20and%201868.&text=The%20Swan%20River%20Settlement%20had,British%20penal%20settlement%20in%201849.   (records at State Records Office of Western Australia)
• Dead Reckoning
     Convicts – https://slwa.wa.gov.au/dead_reckoning/indexes_and_catalogues/a-f2/convicts
     Parkhurst Boys – https://slwa.wa.gov.au/dead_reckoning/indexes_and_catalogues/n-s/parkhurst_boys
• Family History WA – https://www.fhwa.org.au     (has many resources & datasets, some for members only)
• Fremantle Prison – http://fremantleprison.com.au/history-heritage/     (articles)
• Parkhurst Boys 1842-1862 – https://perthdps.com/convicts/park.html     (Perth DPS)
• Police Gazettes of Western Australia – https://www.slwa.wa.gov.au/explore-discover/wa-heritage/police-gazettes   (police & criminals in WA - & some elsewhere)
• Western Australian Convicts – http://honesthistory.net.au/wp/wp-content/uploads/712-Western-Australian-Convict-System.pdf   (article)
• Western Australian Government Gazette – https://www.legislation.wa.gov.au/legislation/statutes.nsf/gazettes.html

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General

• Ancestry.com (Australian Convict Collection) – http://search.ancestry.co.uk/search/group/AUConvicts    (indents, musters, pardons & more, costs)
• Australian convict colonies (map) – https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=zBOxrQGsslek.kI_J9y8mX8KA&msa=0    (my map of convict colonies in Australia)
• Australian Convict Sites – https://www.australianconvictsites.org.au    (Australian Convict Sites World Heritage Property)
• Australian Joint Copying Project (NLA) – https://www.nla.gov.au/content/australian-joint-copying-project   (UK government documents copied because of interest to Australia, NZ & Pacific, in state and national libraries)
• Australian Royalty – http://australianroyalty.net.au   (information about convicts & their descendants)
• Biographical Database of Australia – https://www.bda-online.org.au   (free to search, costs to see detailed results)
• Bushranging Act (1830) – http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/courses/lawdemo/DOCS/BUSH.htm   (law to suppress bushrangers, led to certificates of freedom for ex-convicts - & harassment of free settlers)
• Claim a Convict – http://www.hawkesbury.net.au/claimaconvict/   (contact other convict descendants)
• Convict Creations – http://www.convictcreations.com/   (information & interesting trivia about convicts)
• Convict Life – http://www.pilotguides.com/tv-shows/short-history-of-the-world/a-short-history-of-convict-australia/   (aspects of daily life for convicts)
• Convict Punishment – http://www.convictcreations.com/history/punishments.html   (article)
• Convict Transportation Registers Database – http://www.convictrecords.com.au
• Convict Women – http://bit.ly/WhoresDamnedWhores   ("Whores, damned whores and female convicts: Why our history does early Australian colonial women a grave injustice")
• Convicts guide – https://www.nla.gov.au/research-guides/convicts    (National Library of Australia guide)
• Convicts and national character – https://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2008/july/1277335186/john-hirst/oddity-start
• Convicts to Australia – https://perthdps.com/convicts/park.html     (Perth DPS)
• Cora Num's Convict Records – https://coraweb.com.au/websites/convicts/    (gateway site, also excellent book on convict sources)
• Crime and Punishment – http://www.amw.org.au/sites/default/files/memory_of_the_world/index/crime-and-punishment.html   (detailed history, UNESCO Memory of the World Program)
• Digital Panopticon – https://www.digitalpanopticon.org    (Tracing London Convicts in Britain & Australia, 1780-1925)
     Transportation Under the Macroscope – https://blog.digitalpanopticon.org/transportation-under-the-macroscope/    (graphs analysing aspects of transportation)
• Fellowship of First Fleeters – http://www.fellowshipfirstfleeters.org.au   (for descendants of all those who came on First Fleet)
• From Terra Australis to Australia – https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/stories/terra-australis-australia   (State Library NSW)
• Pirates of the Pacific: The Convict Seizure of the Wellington – https://www.jstor.org/stable/41563257    (JSTOR article)
• Secondary Punishment in the Penal Period in Australia – http://www.barrow-lousada.org/PDFdocs/28th-May-1977-Secondary-Punishment-in-the-Penal-Period-in-Australia-By-Professor-Bryan-Gandevia-.pdf    (Medico-Legal Society paper)
• Trove – http://trove.nla.gov.au    (digitised newspapers, photos & much more)